TLS 协议主要关注于在两个或多个互相通信的计算机程序之间提供隐私和数据完整性。在互联网上，最常见的应用场景是在客户端（例如网页浏览器）和服务器之间的通信。
A key pair is needed for the exchange of information, which involves a public key that includes information about the identity of the owner and matches a private key. The private key must be kept secret, otherwise the security is compromised. However, anyone can create a key pair, store any identity on it, and pretend to be the identity of their choice. One solution involves the concept of a Certification Authority (CA), formalized by the X.509 standard. This term covers an entity that holds a trusted key pair known as a root certificate. This certificate is only used to sign other certificates (key pairs), after proper steps have been undertaken to check the identity stored on the key pair. Applications using X.509 can then check the certificates presented to them, if they know about the trusted root certificates.
Many programs create and use snakeoil certificates by default (see sidebar
安全 Snake oil SSL 证书). Fortunately the
certbot package brings everything we need to create our own trusted certificates, provided by the "Lets Encrypt" initiative (see sidebar
CULTURE The Let's Encrypt Initiative), which can also be used for mail transport agents (Postfix), mail delivery agents (Dovecot, Cyrus, etc.), and other network services.
The Falcot administrators just want to create a certificate for their website, which runs on Apache. There is a convenient Apache plugin for certbot that automatically edits the Apache configuration to serve the obtained certificate, so they make use of it:
# apt install python3-certbot-apache
[...]
# certbot --apache
aving debug log to /var/log/letsencrypt/letsencrypt.log
Plugins selected: Authenticator apache, Installer apache
Enter email address (used for urgent renewal and security notices)
(Enter 'c' to cancel): [email protected]
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Please read the Terms of Service at
https://letsencrypt.org/documents/LE-SA-v1.2-November-15-2017.pdf. You must
agree in order to register with the ACME server. Do you agree?
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(Y)es/(N)o: Y
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Would you be willing, once your first certificate is successfully issued, to
share your email address with the Electronic Frontier Foundation, a founding
partner of the Let's Encrypt project and the non-profit organization that
develops Certbot? We'd like to send you email about our work encrypting the web,
EFF news, campaigns, and ways to support digital freedom.
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(Y)es/(N)o: N
Account registered.
No names were found in your configuration files. Please enter in your domain
name(s) (comma and/or space separated) (Enter 'c' to cancel): falcot.com
Requesting a certificate for falcot.com
Performing the following challenges:
http-01 challenge for falcot.com
Enabled Apache rewrite module
Waiting for verification...
Cleaning up challenges
Created an SSL vhost at /etc/apache2/sites-available/000-default-le-ssl.conf
Enabled Apache socache_shmcb module
Enabled Apache ssl module
Deploying Certificate to VirtualHost /etc/apache2/sites-available/000-default-le-ssl.conf
Enabling available site: /etc/apache2/sites-available/000-default-le-ssl.conf
Please choose whether or not to redirect HTTP traffic to HTTPS, removing HTTP access.
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1: No redirect - Make no further changes to the webserver configuration.
2: Redirect - Make all requests redirect to secure HTTPS access. Choose this for
new sites, or if you're confident your site works on HTTPS. You can undo this
change by editing your web server's configuration.
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Select the appropriate number [1-2] then [enter] (press 'c' to cancel): 2
Enabled Apache rewrite module
Redirecting vhost in /etc/apache2/sites-enabled/000-default.conf to ssl vhost in /etc/apache2/sites-available/000-default-le-ssl.conf
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Congratulations! You have successfully enabled https://falcot.com
You should test your configuration at:
https://www.ssllabs.com/ssltest/analyze.html?d=falcot.com
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IMPORTANT NOTES:
- Congratulations! Your certificate and chain have been saved at:
/etc/letsencrypt/live/falcot.com/fullchain.pem
Your key file has been saved at:
/etc/letsencrypt/live/falcot.com/privkey.pem
Your cert will expire on 2022-06-04. To obtain a new or tweaked
version of this certificate in the future, simply run certbot again
with the "certonly" option. To non-interactively renew *all* of
your certificates, run "certbot renew"
- Your account credentials have been saved in your Certbot
configuration directory at /etc/letsencrypt. You should make a
secure backup of this folder now. This configuration directory will
also contain certificates and private keys obtained by Certbot so
making regular backups of this folder is ideal.
- If you like Certbot, please consider supporting our work by:
Donating to ISRG / Let's Encrypt: https://letsencrypt.org/donate
Donating to EFF: https://eff.org/donate-le
If you would rather keep the server running during the certificate creation, you can use the webroot plugin to get the certificate with the arguments certonly and --webroot. You would have to specify a --webroot-path (abbreviated -w), which should contain the files served. The command looks as follows:
# certbot certonly --webroot -w /var/www/html -d www.DOMAIN.com -d DOMAIN.com
You need to restart all services using the certificates that you have created.
The certificates created are so called short-life certificates, which are valid for 90 days and must therefor be renewed every once in three months using the certbot renew command. However, we shouldn't renew every certificate manually, but automatically. A basic cron job is included by certbot in /etc/cron.d/certbot. To ensure that certificates can be automatically renewed, you can execute certbot renew --dry-run.
It is also possible to create our own CA, for that we will use the RSA algorithm, widely used in public-key cryptography. It involves a “key pair”, comprised of a private and a public key. The two keys are closely linked to each other, and their mathematical properties are such that a message encrypted with the public key can only be decrypted by someone knowing the private key, which ensures confidentiality. In the opposite direction, a message encrypted with the private key can be decrypted by anyone knowing the public key, which allows authenticating the origin of a message since only someone with access to the private key could generate it. When associated with a digital hash function (MD5, SHA1, or a more recent variant), this leads to a signature mechanism that can be applied to any message.
Since public CAs only emit certificates in exchange for a (hefty) fee, it is also possible to create a private certification authority within the company. The easy-rsa package provides tools to serve as an X.509 certification infrastructure, implemented as a set of scripts using the openssl command.
Falcot 公司的管理者以此工具添加必要的服务器与客户端认证。可以把所有的客户端配置成类似的状态，因为他们只需信件 Falcot 本地 CA 的认证。此 CA 是率先认证的；为此工作，管理者在适当的地方创建新的文件夹，供 CA 的文件使用，最好放在脱机的地方，杜绝私钥被窃的危险。
$ make-cadir pki-falcot
$ cd pki-falcot
然后它们将所需的参数存储到vars文件中，可以不加注释和编辑：
$ grep EASYRSA vars
if [ -z "$EASYRSA_CALLER" ]; then
# easyrsa. More specific variables for specific files (e.g., EASYRSA_SSL_CONF)
#set_var EASYRSA "${0%/*}"
#set_var EASYRSA_OPENSSL "openssl"
#set_var EASYRSA_OPENSSL "C:/Program Files/OpenSSL-Win32/bin/openssl.exe"
#set_var EASYRSA_PKI "$PWD/pki"
#set_var EASYRSA_TEMP_DIR "$EASYRSA_PKI"
#set_var EASYRSA_DN "cn_only"
set_var EASYRSA_REQ_COUNTRY "FR"
set_var EASYRSA_REQ_PROVINCE "Loire"
set_var EASYRSA_REQ_CITY "Saint-Étienne"
set_var EASYRSA_REQ_ORG "Falcot Corp"
set_var EASYRSA_REQ_EMAIL "[email protected]"
set_var EASYRSA_REQ_OU "Certificate authority"
#set_var EASYRSA_KEY_SIZE 2048
#set_var EASYRSA_ALGO rsa
#set_var EASYRSA_CURVE secp384r1
#set_var EASYRSA_CA_EXPIRE 3650
#set_var EASYRSA_CERT_EXPIRE 825
#set_var EASYRSA_CRL_DAYS 180
#set_var EASYRSA_CERT_RENEW 30
#set_var EASYRSA_RAND_SN "yes"
#set_var EASYRSA_NS_SUPPORT "no"
#set_var EASYRSA_NS_COMMENT "Easy-RSA Generated Certificate"
#set_var EASYRSA_TEMP_FILE "$EASYRSA_PKI/extensions.temp"
# when undefined here, default behaviour is to look in $EASYRSA_PKI first, then
# fallback to $EASYRSA for the 'x509-types' dir. You may override this
#set_var EASYRSA_EXT_DIR "$EASYRSA/x509-types"
#set_var EASYRSA_KDC_REALM "CHANGEME.EXAMPLE.COM"
# EASYRSA_PKI or EASYRSA dir (in that order.) NOTE that this file is Easy-RSA
#set_var EASYRSA_SSL_CONF "$EASYRSA/openssl-easyrsa.cnf"
#set_var EASYRSA_REQ_CN "ChangeMe"
#set_var EASYRSA_DIGEST "sha256"
#set_var EASYRSA_BATCH ""
$ vim vars
$
Now we prepare the public key infrastructure directory with the following command:
$ ./easyrsa init-pki
init-pki complete; you may now create a CA or requests.
Your newly created PKI dir is: /home/debian/pki-falcot/pki
下一步是创建CA本身的密钥对（在这一步中，密钥对的两个部分将存储在pki/ca.crt和pki/private/ca.key下）。我们可以添加选项 nopass 来避免每次使用私钥时输入密码：
$ ./easyrsa build-ca nopass
Using SSL: openssl OpenSSL 1.1.1k 25 Mar 2021
Generating RSA private key, 2048 bit long modulus (2 primes)
..................+++++
...............................+++++
e is 65537 (0x010001)
You are about to be asked to enter information that will be incorporated
into your certificate request.
What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name or a DN.
There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank
For some fields there will be a default value,
If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.
-----
Common Name (eg: your user, host, or server name) [Easy-RSA CA]:
CA creation complete and you may now import and sign cert requests.
Your new CA certificate file for publishing is at:
/home/debian/pki-falcot/pki/ca.crt
The certificate can now be created, as well as the Diffie-Hellman parameters required for the server side of an SSL/TLS connection. They want to use it for a VPN server (see section
第 10.3 节 “虚拟专用网络”) that is identified by the DNS name
vpn.falcot.com; this name is re-used for the generated key files (
keys/vpn.falcot.com.crt for the public certificate,
keys/vpn.falcot.com.key for the private key):
$ ./easyrsa gen-req vpn.falcot.com nopass
Using SSL: openssl OpenSSL 1.1.1k 25 Mar 2021
Generating a RSA private key
......................................+++++
..........................................................................+++++
writing new private key to '/home/debian/pki-falcot/pki/easy-rsa-5515.0PwyXl/tmp.g1c6u6'
-----
You are about to be asked to enter information that will be incorporated
into your certificate request.
What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name or a DN.
There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank
For some fields there will be a default value,
If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.
-----
Common Name (eg: your user, host, or server name) [vpn.falcot.com]:
Keypair and certificate request completed. Your files are:
req: /home/debian/pki-falcot/pki/reqs/vpn.falcot.com.req
key: /home/debian/pki-falcot/pki/private/vpn.falcot.com.key
$ ./easyrsa sign-req server vpn.falcot.com
Using SSL: openssl OpenSSL 1.1.1k 25 Mar 2021
You are about to sign the following certificate.
Please check over the details shown below for accuracy. Note that this request
has not been cryptographically verified. Please be sure it came from a trusted
source or that you have verified the request checksum with the sender.
Request subject, to be signed as a server certificate for 825 days:
subject=
commonName = vpn.falcot.com
Type the word 'yes' to continue, or any other input to abort.
Confirm request details: yes
Using configuration from /home/debian/pki-falcot/pki/easy-rsa-5603.87iCIa/tmp.u8r8Fj
Check that the request matches the signature
Signature ok
The Subject's Distinguished Name is as follows
commonName :ASN.1 12:'vpn.falcot.com'
Certificate is to be certified until May 27 15:26:29 2024 GMT (825 days)
Write out database with 1 new entries
Data Base Updated
Certificate created at: /home/debian/pki-falcot/pki/issued/vpn.falcot.com.crt
$ ./easyrsa gen-dh
Using SSL: openssl OpenSSL 1.1.1k 25 Mar 2021
Generating DH parameters, 2048 bit long safe prime, generator 2
This is going to take a long time
[…]
DH parameters of size 2048 created at /home/debian/pki-falcot/pki/dh.pem
以上的步骤添加 VPN 客户；每个使用 VPN 的电脑或用户都需有个认证：
$ ./easyrsa build-client-full JoeSmith nopass
Using SSL: openssl OpenSSL 1.1.1k 25 Mar 2021
Generating a RSA private key
...................................+++++
.........................................................................................+++++
writing new private key to '/home/debian/pki-falcot/pki/easy-rsa-5694.DOYwSn/tmp.RKlbOE'
-----
Using configuration from /home/debian/pki-falcot/pki/easy-rsa-5694.DOYwSn/tmp.d5QHAC
Check that the request matches the signature
Signature ok
The Subject's Distinguished Name is as follows
commonName :ASN.1 12:'JoeSmith'
Certificate is to be certified until May 27 15:29:25 2024 GMT (825 days)
Write out database with 1 new entries
Data Base Updated
